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Ecology: Biology of Interactions. 6.13. Military Threat
As we have established, global humanity faces a serious challenge that threatens its very existence. If human efforts were proportional to this danger, changing our species’ relationship with the environment would become the primary task of every government and every person...
Ecology: Biology of Interactions. 6.12. Smog
Smog is a form of air pollution typical of large cities and industrial centers. When several different pollutants mix and are exposed to sunlight, they can enter photochemical reactions. The result is synergy (mutual enhancement of effects) and formation of especially hazardous mixtures...
Ecology: Biology of Interactions. 6.11. Acid Rain
Fossil fuel, the bread of the modern economy, was formed from the biomass of past geological eras. In addition to carbon and its compounds, fuel also contains sulfur and nitrogen. When such fuel is burned, sulfur and nitrogen oxides are emitted into the atmosphere...
Ecology: Biology of Interactions. 6.10. Ozone and Ozone-Layer Depletion
In 1985, an "ozone hole" was discovered above the South Pole (a zone where ozone content was 40-50% of normal). According to the most probable hypotheses, its formation is linked to freons (chlorofluorocarbons).
Ecology: biology of interaction. 6.09. Global warming
One of the most striking recent environmental changes has been global warming — the gradual increase in the Earth's atmospheric and hydrospheric average annual temperature. Surprisingly, until relatively recently the very fact of global warming sparked fierce debates. K...
Ecology: Biology of Interactions. 6.08. Water Availability and Soils in Ukraine
On average, the planet has about 11,000 cubic meters of river water per person per year. Most of Ukraine belongs to regions with limited water resources (less than 1,000 cubic meters per person per year), including Crimea, Eastern, and Southern Ukraine.
Ecology: Biology of Interactions. 6.07. The Energy Supply Problem
The potential power of renewable energy sources is approximately 10-13 TW (terawatts, billions of kilowatts), which is of the same order of magnitude as humanity's needs.
Ecology: the biology of interaction. 6.06. The problem of pesticides
Overall, it can be said that the use of pesticides initially leads to a surge in yields, which is then followed by a decline. One of the dangerous features of pesticides (as with many other pollutants) is their ability to concentrate as they are transferred through trophic chains.
Ecology: Biology of Interaction. 6.05. The Food Security Problem
Human existence depends on use of primary production. Each person requires roughly 1 million kcal per year. Although total food production exceeds demand by several tens of percent, high losses and uneven distribution create persistent shortages.
Ecology: Biology of Interaction. 6.04. Can Earth’s Population Size Be Limited?
As a consequence of Earth’s overpopulation, many proposals have been put forward to reduce global population. At first glance this seems straightforward, but practical implementation of large-scale demographic regulation has repeatedly proven extremely difficult.
Ecology: biology of interaction. 6.03. Demographic transition
The change in the birth‑mortality ratio accompanied by a rapid increase in population size, followed by its stabilization, is called a demographic transition. The changes occurring during a demographic transition affect not only the population size but also the structure of society....
Ecology: the biology of interaction. 6.02. Demographic explosion
In a paradoxical form about the hyperbolic growth of humanity, one of the founders of cybernetics, Heinz von Förster, reported that he (together with his colleagues) published in 1960 a paper titled “The End of the World: Friday, November 13, 2026.” According to the material available to von …
Ecology: the biology of interaction. 6.01. The ecological crisis of modern times
Chapter 6. Human Ecology and Nature Conservation The components of the modern ecological crisis are as follows. The growth of the human population has caused shortages of food, energy, and fresh water. Overcoming these problems is aggravated by climate change, the destruction of natural ecosystems, the decreasing...
Ecology: Biology of Interaction. 5.27. (supplement) Pressure at Depth: Enduring and Overcoming
Sometimes environmental impacts are so severe that resisting them is nearly impossible. Water pressure at great depth is one such case. Deep-sea organisms usually do not resist pressure directly but endure it via pressure equilibration, while some large vertebrates evolved active biomechanical strategies for deep diving.
Ecology: biology of interaction. 5.26. (supplement) Factors influencing organism development
«Hereditary» and «non‑hereditary» traits are merely the extreme points of a single scale, on which traits are arranged whose development, as a result of stabilizing selection, is regulated better (and occurs across a wide range of conditions) or worse (and occurs only...
Ecology: Biology of Interaction. 5.25. (supplement) Exchange of Matter, Energy, and Information
For matter and energy, conservation laws apply: neither appears from nothing nor disappears, but both only transform from one form to another. Information behaves differently and can appear, disappear, and be transmitted without being lost by the sender.
Ecology: Biology of Interaction. 5.24. Life Forms of Organisms
Life form is a stable complex of adaptations to a particular mode of life. Their study began with Theophrastus, who divided plants into trees, shrubs, and herbs; later this approach was developed in greater detail.
Ecology: biology of interactions. 5.23. Adaptations of organisms
Adaptations — adjustments to specific environmental conditions that manifest in accordance with the morphological, physiological, and behavioral traits of an organism and its way of life under particular environmental conditions. Three groups of organism adaptations to adverse conditions can be distinguished: pre...
Ecology: Biology of Interaction. 5.22. Main Habitats and Their Features
The area inhabited by living organisms (arena of life) can be divided into four major environments: aquatic, terrestrial-air, soil, and intraorganismal.
Ecology: the biology of interaction. 5.21. Clinal variability and some ecological rules
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