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Ecology: biology of interaction. 4.06. Classification of relationships between populations
Classify the relationships between species based on the influence they exert on each other was proposed, for example, by the renowned American ecologist Eugene Odum. He distinguished three types of …
Ecology: The Biology of Interactions. 4.05. The Lotka-Volterra Model
The Lotka-Volterra model played an exceptional role in the development of mathematical ecology. As is easy to see, many other, more complex models can be built on its basis. For …
Ecology: The Biology of Interactions. 4.04. Exponential and Logistic Growth of Population Size
Population increase is proportional to population size; therefore, if growth is not limited by external factors, the population grows with acceleration. Its dynamics are described by the exponential population growth …
Ecology: biology of interaction. 4.03. Demographic tables, pyramids and survival curves
Demographic tables are convenient for monitoring the dynamics of birth and death rates across different age and/or sex groups. One of the methods of constructing them involves tracking the fate …
Ecology: The Biology of Interactions. 4.02. Population Characteristics
Demographic characteristics of populations can be divided into two groups: static and dynamic. Static characteristics can be determined for a specific moment in time; an example is population size. Birth …
Ecology: the biology of interaction. 4.01. Populations and their properties
Chapter 4. Population Ecology The concept «population» — one of the most important in biology. As often happens with key terms, it is used in various senses. To the definition …
Ecology: biology of interaction. 3.16. (supplement) Biomes and human culture
The features of the natural environment determine the characteristic relationships between it and human society, and therefore also the characteristic features of the society. Humans have evolved as a species …
Ecology: The Biology of Interactions. 3.15. (supplement) Ecosystem Efficiency and Energy Subsidies
Ecosystems can be assisted by external energy inputs. To prevent weeds from choking wheat in a wheat field, humans invest additional energy. In primitive agriculture this energy can be muscular …
Ecology: The Biology of Interactions. 3.14. (supplement) Flora, Fauna, and Consortia
When describing the living world of specific territories, the terms fauna, flora, and several related concepts are often used. Flora is the totality of plant species associated with a particular …
Ecology: The Biology of Interactions. 3.13. Ecological Pyramids
Charles Elton proposed a graphical way to express relationships among trophic levels that became almost a symbol of ecology as a science. This refers to ecological pyramids. When ecological pyramids …
Ecology: The Biology of Interactions. 3.12. Ecological Efficiencies
The simpler the task of energy transformation that organisms perform, the lower their losses. Thus, carnivorous animals solve a relatively simple task: they obtain energy from high-quality food that is …
Ecology: The Biology of Interactions. 3.11. Trophic Links and Levels
Autotrophs obtain biogenic elements and the necessary energy from the environment and create organic matter. The organic matter produced by autotrophs is consumed by some heterotrophs; those heterotrophs are consumed …