Ecology: the Biology of Interactions. 1.13. (Supplement) Universal Properties of Biosystems
Despite all the specificity of biosystems of different levels, a number of universal properties can be distinguished for them. Let us name some of them: a definite composition and orderliness; hierarchical organization; metabolism; energy flow; capacity for development; adaptedness; self-regulation; dynamism; integrit...
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1.12. (addendum) Models, their limitations and dangers
D. Shabanov, M. Kravchenko. Ecology: Biology of Interaction Section 1. Ecology and the Biosystems it Studies
1.14. (addendum) Where to look for the causes of the peculiarities of biosystems?
1.13. (Addition) Universal Properties of Biosystems Despite the unique nature of biosystems at various levels, several universal properties can be identified. Here are some of them: **Specific Composition and Orderliness:** All biosystems are characterized by a high degree of orderliness, which is maintained through ongoing processes. Biosystems above the molecular level consist of specific organic substances, inorganic compounds, and a significant amount of water. The orderliness of a cell is evident in its characteristic set of cellular components, while the orderliness of a biogeocenosis is defined by its specific functional groups of organisms and their associated non-living environment. **Hierarchical Organization:** As discussed in section 1.05, life exists at multiple organizational levels, each with its distinct features. **Metabolism:** This is a crucial aspect of biosystem functioning, encompassing all chemical transformations and substance movements within them. At the cellular and organismal levels, metabolism is linked to nutrition, gas exchange, and excretion. At the biogeocenotic level, it involves nutrient cycling and movement between different biogeocenoses. **Energy Flow:** Energy flow through biosystems is closely tied to their metabolism. Because atoms are conserved during chemical transformations, substances can cycle within living systems. However, according to the second law of thermodynamics, energy is partially dissipated as heat during transformations. Therefore, living systems can only exist with a continuous flow of energy from an external source. For the biosphere as a whole, the Sun serves as this primary energy source. **Capacity for Development:** All biosystems originate and evolve over time. Evolution at the molecular level led to the emergence of organisms. Through population evolution, the characteristics of organisms and the systems they comprise change. The evolution of biogeocenoses and the biosphere is also linked to their developmental capacity. The development of an individual organism is called ontogeny; the evolutionary history of a species is phylogeny; and the development of biogeocenoses in a specific area is succession. **Adaptability:** This refers to the congruence between a biosystem's characteristics and its environment. Adaptability is not a static state, as environments are constantly changing, partly due to the influence of biosystems themselves and their evolution. Consequently, all living systems can respond to environmental changes and develop adaptations. The remarkable perfection and purposefulness of living organisms and life in general are a result of this adaptive capacity. Long-term adaptations are achieved through evolution, while short-term adaptations in cells and organisms are facilitated by irritability – the ability to respond to external or internal stimuli. Biosystems at all levels respond to environmental changes, indicating they engage in information exchange with their surroundings. **Self-Regulation:** Biosystems continuously exchange matter, energy, and information with their environment. For instance, cells and organisms maintain a stable internal environment (homeostasis) through self-regulation, while biogeocenoses preserve their species composition and the properties of their non-living environment. The stability of biosystem properties is maintained by negative feedback loops, while change and development are driven by positive feedback loops. **Dynamism (State of Continuous Change):** Life processes at all organizational levels involve the exchange of matter, energy, and information. Each biosystem, from the cellular level upwards, is more of a process than a static structure. A cell remains itself despite the constant turnover of its constituent molecules. A population persists even as its individual members die and are replaced. A common manifestation of dynamism in cells and organisms is motility – the ability to change position and form. **Integrity (Holism):** This is a prerequisite for considering any entity as a system. It arises from the interconnectedness and interdependence of a biosystem's parts, leading to emergent properties. The degree of interdependence varies across different levels. For example, a cell requires a precise set of mutually dependent components. An organism consists of a specific set of organs. A biogeocenosis also has a defined set of components (e.g., autotrophs and heterotrophs), but their composition can be more interchangeable. Due to the more rigid interdependencies within cells and organisms compared to biogeocenoses, cells and organisms can be considered more integral. At the biogeocenotic and biosphere levels, biosystems include both living and non-living components. **Uniqueness:** All biosystems, starting from the cellular level, are unique and distinct from similar systems. For instance, even organisms with identical genetic information (identical twins, clones) possess unique individuality shaped by diverse environmental influences and self-regulation during development. **Reproduction:** The ability of biosystems to reproduce ensures the continuity of life. Biomolecules are synthesized by cells; cells (and even some eukaryotic cell structures) reproduce through division. At the organismal level, reproduction occurs through proliferation. The succession of generations at the organismal (and cellular) level is ensured by heredity, while the potential for evolution is provided by variation. The reproduction of populations and biogeocenoses is facilitated not only by organismal reproduction but also by their dispersal capabilities.
1.12. (addendum) Models, their limitations and dangers
D. Shabanov, M. Kravchenko. Ecology: Biology of Interaction Section 1. Ecology and the Biosystems it Studies
1.14. (addendum) Where to look for the causes of the peculiarities of biosystems?