Ecology: Biology of Interactions. 6.16. (Supplement) How Do Humans Differ from Other Animals?
As will become clear below, humans possess several fundamental differences from other animals. However, strangely enough, these are not the differences people think of first. To formulate the principal differences between humans and other animals, we should first examine those differences that are not fundamental...
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6.15. (Addendum) On the Animal Nature of Man
D. Shabanov, M. Kravchenko. Ecology: Biology of Interaction Section 6. Human Ecology and Conservation
6.17. (addendum) Unique Ecological Characteristics of Humans
6.16. (Supplement) How Do Humans Differ from Other Animals? With the emergence of global humanity on Earth, the biosphere entered a new state. As will become clear below, humans possess several fundamental differences from other animals. However, strangely enough, these are not the differences people usually think of first. To formulate the principal differences between humans and other animals, let us first consider differences that are not fundamental. Undoubtedly, humans have many important quantitative peculiarities. For example, the abundance of humanity (as well as its domestic animals) is unusually high (Fig. 6.16.1). The number of people is about 100,000 times higher than the “normal” biospheric abundance of animals of our body size. The amount of energy transformed by our species is incomparably higher than for any other species. [IMG_1] Fig. 6.16.1. Mammals show a fairly strict relationship between individual body size and species abundance in the biosphere. Our species and closely associated domestic animals break out of this relationship by several orders of magnitude. While recognizing the importance of quantitative differences, let us nevertheless focus on other, fundamental ones. In what does a human differ radically from other animals? Based on experience discussing this topic, one can review several frequently proposed answers. “Humans are rational.” It is difficult for us to know what happens in the psyche of another person, not to mention animals. In any case, the psyche of highly developed animals, including humans, ensures their interaction with the environment and adaptation to it. What happens inside this “black box” is very hard to describe and name. This answer is probably correct, but we should not limit ourselves to it. In which outwardly observable features are the unique properties of our species expressed? “Humans use abstract symbols (the second signaling system).” To inform other bees about a food source, a scout bee performs a special dance in a figure-eight pattern. The number of abdominal oscillations along the central segment indicates distance to the source, and the angle of that segment relative to vertical indicates the flight direction relative to the sun, corrected for its daily movement. “Humans build a model of the world in their psyche and are guided by it.” From the tilt axis of bee dances, one can determine where, in their “calculations,” the sun is located. It turns out that in their model of the world, during the day the sun moves uniformly from east to west above the Earth, and at night from west to east under the Earth (bees “use” a geocentric system). In this they differ, for example, from fish able to orient by the sun: for them, at night the sun “moves” from west to east above the Earth while remaining invisible. “Humans live in society.” Many other species live socially—from social insects to flocking and herding mammals. Human social behavior shares many features with that of other primates. “Humans can learn.” Have you seen how a trained dog differs from an untrained one? And is an old hare not superior to a young one at escaping predators? “All animals change themselves to adapt to the environment, while humans change the environment.” A marmot digging a burrow changes its environment in the desired direction. By adapting to winter cold, we change ourselves too—remember: in autumn, 0°C feels cold on the face, but in spring it does not. “Humans can work.” And what do wasps do when they obtain sweet food for themselves and protein food for their larvae? “Humans create artificial ecosystems.” Beavers build dams up to a kilometer long, flooding attractive forest patches. They do this for two purposes: to reach food plants and to protect themselves from predators. Dam construction depends on local conditions and is constantly repaired and reinforced with branches and mud. “Humans can destroy their own habitat.” Consider the sad story of yeasts inhabiting grape juice and converting sugar into alcohol until the alcohol-rich medium became unsuitable for their own life. “Humans build cities and use other species.” Leaf-cutter ants fill underground chambers with chewed leaves, cultivate specific fungi there (controlling “weeds”), and feed on fungal fruiting bodies. Ants are also capable of “animal husbandry.” “Human actions are purposeful.” Humans can act purposefully, but can also make astonishing mistakes and simply meaningless actions. The same can be said of most animal species. Probably each of us can find many examples from personal experience. During service in the Soviet Army, one of this manual’s authors saw two conscripts sawing a leaning tree with a two-hand saw from the side toward which the tree leaned. When warned that the tree would clamp their saw, they responded with verbal aggression. When the saw jammed, they tried to chop it free with an axe—and again chopped “with the lean.” When the axe got stuck too, their commander ordered the tree pulled with a vehicle. The fallen tree damaged both the car and the driver. “Humans are the only animals ashamed of nudity.” Of course, shame was Adam and Eve’s first acquisition after eating from the tree of knowledge of good and evil. Yet in many primates, a male displaying his genitals challenges other males, leading either to submission or conflict. A female displaying genitals to a “foreign” male signals sexual readiness and may provoke aggression from the dominant male. The mechanism of avoiding conflict-laden situations transformed into what we call shame. “Humans can harm their own health.” Lomechusa beetles can live in ant nests and release narcotic substances that cause ants to stop necessary work. Ants actively care for these beetles and may cultivate them in numbers sufficient to destroy the colony. “Humans experience friendly feelings toward close individuals.” Toad tadpoles swim in schools. They choose schools composed of relatives (full siblings are more attractive than cousins), and among non-relatives choose “familiar” individuals—those with whom they were previously in contact. So, do humans differ fundamentally from other animals? Yes—they do, and very substantially. These differences are considered in detail below.
6.15. (Addendum) On the Animal Nature of Man
D. Shabanov, M. Kravchenko. Ecology: Biology of Interaction Section 6. Human Ecology and Conservation
6.17. (addendum) Unique Ecological Characteristics of Humans