Herpetofauna of Ukraine

Order Testudines Family Emydidae Genus Emys European pond turtle - Emys orbicularis Suborder Sauria Family Gekkonidae Genus Mediodactylus Crimean gecko - Mediodactylus kotschyi danilewkii Family Lacertidae Genus Lacerta Sand lizard - Lacerta agilis Green lizard - Lacerta viridis Genus Zootoca Viviparous lizard - Zootoca vivipara Genus Darevskia Rock lizard - Darevskia saxicola Genus Podarcis Crimean wall lizard - Podarcis taurica Genus Eremias Steppe runner - Eremias arguta Family Anguidae Genus Anguis Slow worm - Anguis fragilis Genus Pseudopus European legless lizard - Pseudopus apodus Suborder Serpentes Family Colubridae Genus Natrix Grass snake - Natrix natrix Dice snake - Natrix tessellata Genus Coronella Smooth snake - Coronella austriaca Genus Elaphe Dione ratsnake - Elaphe dione Aesculapian snake - Elaphe longissima Four-lined snake - Elaphe sauromates Leopard snake - Elaphe situla Genus Hierophis Caspian whipsnake - Hierophis caspius Family Viperidae Genus Vipera Common adder - Vipera berus Nikolsky's adder - Vipera nikolskii Steppe viper - Vipera renardi Order Testudines Family Emydidae Genus Emys European pond turtle - Emys orbicularis [IMG_1] The European pond turtle is closely associated with aquatic environments. Its preferred habitats are marshes, ponds, lakes, quiet river backwaters, and canals with muddy bottoms and gently sloping banks. Its aquatic lifestyle is reflected in its morphology. Its body is lighter and the carapace less massive than in terrestrial tortoises. The limbs are relatively long, slightly flattened, with well-developed webbing between the toes extending to the claws. The long tail serves as a rudder. Thanks to this body plan it swims swiftly and deftly in water, dives well, and remains submerged for extended periods. On land it moves nimbly and stays close to the water body, plunging in at any sign of danger and burying itself in bottom mud. In mountains it occurs at altitudes up to 600 m above sea level. Active by day and at dusk; at night it sleeps on the bottom of the water body. On the bank it feeds on millipedes, woodlice, grasshoppers, beetles, and other arthropods; in the water it catches crustaceans, insects, molluscs, tadpoles, frogs, and less frequently fish, and it also consumes carrion. In searching for prey the turtle relies not only on vision but also on its keen sense of smell. Plant matter is consumed rarely. It hibernates on the bottoms of water bodies. Hibernation (in Ukraine) lasts approximately 5-6 months, from late October to early March. It surfaces in March-April. In May, turtles mate. Mating may occur both on land and in water. Over the season a female produces 1-3 clutches: in May, June, and July. Each clutch contains 5-10 eggs. The eggs are white, covered in a calcareous shell, oval-elongated, 28-33 mm long, 18-20 mm wide, and weighing 7-8 g. The female deposits them on the sunny side of the bank in a pit approximately 10 cm deep, which she digs with her hind limbs and carefully fills in after laying. Incubation lasts 2-3 months. The hatchlings, 22-25 mm in length, bear a large yolk sac on the abdomen and typically remain underground until the following spring, subsisting on the nutrients of the yolk sac. Sexual maturity is reached at 6-8 years when the carapace is 9-12 cm long. They breed in captivity. Under favourable conditions, with abundant warmth and good nutrition, they may live 25-30 years. In the wild this species is becoming rare and requires protection. Source: Kurylenko V. E., Verves Yu. H. Amphibians and reptiles of the fauna of Ukraine: A reference guide [Educational manual]. - Kyiv: Heneza, 1998. - 208 p. - In Russian. Suborder Sauria Family Gekkonidae Genus Mediodactylus Crimean gecko - Mediodactylus kotschyi danilewkii [IMG_2] The Crimean gecko is one of the subspecies of the Mediterranean gecko. Its body and head are strongly flattened. The dorsal surface and flanks are covered with fine granular scales, among which 8-13 rows of large oval keeled or nearly smooth tubercles are arranged. The dorsal colouration is ash grey or sandy grey. Entirely pale or entirely dark individuals are occasionally encountered. Five to eight (most commonly six) dark M-shaped crossbands run across the back. Seven to fourteen bands of the same colour are also present on the tail. The ventral surface is yellowish greenish; the underside of the tail is ochre-red. In Crimea it inhabits chiefly ancient and modern ruins, stone protective road walls, as well as residential and farm buildings constructed of rough-hewn stone, stone masonry, and rock outcrops. It is occasionally found under the bark of old juniper trees near ruins. It leads an active life during the evening and the first half of the night, hunting spiders, moths, dipterans, beetles, and other insects. From May to late July the female deposits 1-2 eggs. Juveniles, with body and tail length up to 16 mm, appear in July-August. Sexual maturity is reached in the third year of life. The population size in Crimea is approximately one thousand individuals; it requires serious protection and is listed in the Red Data Book of Ukraine. No captive breeding data are available. Source: Kurylenko V. E., Verves Yu. H. Amphibians and reptiles of the fauna of Ukraine: A reference guide [Educational manual]. - Kyiv: Heneza, 1998. - 208 p. - In Russian. Suborder Sauria Family Lacertidae Genus Lacerta Sand lizard - Lacerta agilis [IMG_3] The body colouration of males varies from brownish grey with a yellowish-green throat to bright green or lime green with or without a dark dorsal pattern. Females are coloured in brown or grey tones, less frequently greenish, with a well-defined dorsal pattern. The ventral surface of both sexes is light grey or bluish, sometimes light green with small diffuse dark spots. On the head the rostral scale generally does not contact the nostril. The number of posterior nasal scales is 1-3, supraloreal scales up to 6. There are 5 (rarely 3) supralabial scales anterior to the subocular. Granules between the supraciliary and supraocular scales are absent over most of the range, but when present do not exceed 12. The central temporal scale is usually well developed; the tympanic scale is generally not developed. The anterior upper edge of the subocular scale does not reach the level of the anterior margin of the eye. The two upper temporal scales are usually approximately equal in size. The dentate collar consists of 7-12 scales. Ventral scales are arranged in 6 longitudinal and 23-29 transverse rows (in males) and 25-34 (in females). The anal scale is surrounded anteriorly by one or two rows of preanal scales. Femoral pores reach the knee joint. During the breeding season the green areas of males become more vivid. Individuals with uniformly coloured coffee-brown or ochreous dorsum and a dark lateral pattern are encountered. Uniform grey, brown, or bright green colouration without additional body pattern also occurs. Melanistic (very darkly coloured) specimens are known in this species. Population density in this species is fairly high (up to 300 individuals per hectare). It inhabits dry sunny sites in forests, forest-steppes, and steppes. It is common on ravine slopes, road verges, forest edges, scrub margins, meadows, and sandy areas in pine forests. In mountains it favours steppe-like slopes. Widespread and numerous throughout. Active from March to October. It uses self-dug burrows as well as burrows of other animals, and occasionally cavities in fallen trees and stumps, as shelters. It leads a diurnal lifestyle. Early in the morning, as soon as the sun warms the ground, lizards emerge from their burrows and bask at the entrance. Foraging also takes place at this time. At noon most lizards retreat into shelters, reappearing in the afternoon. They feed predominantly on arthropods: beetles, orthopterans, dipterans, butterflies and their caterpillars, spiders, woodlice, etc., as well as on earthworms and terrestrial molluscs. It usually enters hibernation in early September, and in Crimea 3-4 weeks later. It hibernates in burrows of various animals and various cavities below the frost line. It emerges in spring in the second half of April or early May. At this time mating occurs and fierce battles between males are observed. During the mating season lizards may stay in pairs and share a shelter. As in the green lizard, several clutches following a single prolonged fertilisation have been recorded in this species. The first clutch is usually laid in late April to early May; subsequent clutches may follow in June-July. A female typically lays 6-12 eggs, but clutches of up to 16 eggs occur. The incubation period lasts up to 50 days. Juveniles 2.5-4 cm long (without tail) from the first clutch appear in July-August, and from the second clutch in September-October. Sexual maturity is reached after the second or third hibernation, when the body is approximately 8 cm long. The sand lizard runs very fast. When pursued it may climb tree trunks, jump into water bodies, and swim excellently. In its habitat it co-occurs with the green lizard and the viviparous lizard, and in southern Ukraine also with the Crimean wall lizard, the rock lizard, and the steppe runner. Juvenile sand lizards resemble juvenile green lizards in body shape but differ markedly in pattern and colouration. The sand lizard tolerates captivity well and breeds successfully in captivity. Despite its high abundance and wide distribution, it requires careful treatment in anthropogenic landscapes. Source: Kurylenko V. E., Verves Yu. H. Amphibians and reptiles of the fauna of Ukraine: A reference guide [Educational manual]. - Kyiv: Heneza, 1998. - 208 p. - In Russian. Suborder Sauria Family Lacertidae Genus Lacerta Green lizard - Lacerta viridis [IMG_4] Juvenile green lizards are uniformly coloured brownish or greyish brown with sparse spots and flecks, and with rows of white spots along the flanks. With age the dorsum becomes green and the white lateral spots usually merge into longitudinal, sometimes paired, stripes. Adult individuals are bright or dark green above with numerous black or yellow spots, often so densely arranged that the lizard appears almost entirely black with green and yellow speckles showing through. Individuals with irregularly shaped dark spots edged with pale running along the vertebral line occur. The head is dark green or brownish above with characteristic rounded pale or yellowish spots and dashes. In males during the breeding season the throat becomes bright blue; in females it is greenish or bluish with marbled patterning. The belly of males is bright yellow, of females whitish. On the head the rostral scale contacts or nearly contacts the nostril. The number of posterior nasal scales is 2-3. There is one loreal scale. There are 4 (rarely 5 or 3) supralabial scales anterior to the subocular. The prefrontal scales usually contact each other. Up to 14 granules are present between the supraocular and supraciliary scales, sometimes absent altogether. The upper temporal scales are usually 2, nearly equal in size or the anterior one is larger. The central temporal scale is either nearly indistinguishable from adjacent scales in size or strongly enlarged. The tympanic scale is more or less well developed. The collar, consisting of 7-13 scales, is dentate. The dorsal scales are elongated, hexagonal, with well-developed keels. The ventral scales are arranged in six longitudinal rows; on each side of them is one row of considerably larger scales. The anal scale is medium-sized, distinctly wider than long, and is semi-encircled by 6-10 circumanal scales, of which the central pair is usually somewhat larger. Femoral pores reach the knee joint. More than 25 scales encircle the ninth-tenth ring of the tail. It inhabits dry sunny sites at rocky outcrops, river floodplains, hill slopes, in scrubland and open woodland, on forest clearings, field margins, vineyards, and orchards. In mountains it occurs at altitudes up to 1,700 m above sea level. Mean population density is 1-4 individuals per 1 km transect. Rock crevices, stone piles, brushwood heaps, spaces under lying trunks, self-dug long burrows, or rodent burrows serve as shelters. In southern Ukraine it is active from late March to early April through early October; in the central zone from late April to early May through mid-September. During hot periods (July-August) it sometimes enters summer dormancy. Most active in the morning hours; from 12:00 to 16:00 most lizards disappear into shelters or move to shaded areas. It runs very fast. When hunting and escaping danger it frequently climbs shrubs and trees, can leap from branch to branch, and jump to the ground from considerable heights. The diet of the green lizard consists predominantly of beetles, orthopterans, bugs, caterpillars, hymenopterans, and spiders. It also consumes earthworms, molluscs, solifugids, centipedes, dragonflies, and other animals; cases of consuming small lizards and juvenile rodents are known. The mating period begins in May to early June. Fierce battles between males are observed at this time. Egg-laying occurs from the second half of June to the end of July. The female deposits 5-20 (most commonly 8-12) eggs. Juveniles appear from August to September. Sexual maturity in lizards apparently occurs in the third year of life. Prolonged fertilisation has been recorded in green lizards, enabling repeated egg-laying after a single mating (up to three clutches per summer). This is because sperm remains viable in the female reproductive tract for several weeks. The green lizard breeds well in captivity. It possibly requires protection as a conspicuous and attractive reptile species. Source: Kurylenko V. E., Verves Yu. H. Amphibians and reptiles of the fauna of Ukraine: A reference guide [Educational manual]. - Kyiv: Heneza, 1998. - 208 p. - In Russian. Suborder Sauria Family Lacertidae Genus Zootoca Viviparous lizard - Zootoca vivipara [IMG_5] Juveniles are black, dark brown, bronze-brown, or dirty yellow, with almost no pattern. Adult lizards are brown, chocolate-brown, yellowish-brown, or greenish in colour with a characteristic pattern usually consisting of a dark, often interrupted, vertebral stripe, two longitudinal pale stripes along the sides of the back, and broad dark lateral bands bounded below by a pale line sometimes broken into rounded spots. More or less elongated alternating dark and pale spots and speckles are usually arranged along the dorsum. Sometimes the dorsal pattern is indistinct. Entirely black (melanistic) individuals also occur. The belly and the inner surface of the thighs and tail base are brick-red or orange in males, with numerous dark spots, and whitish, cream, yellowish, or greenish in females, usually without spots. The throat in both sexes is sometimes pinkish. The head is not flattened. The rostral scale generally does not contact the nostril. There is one posterior nasal scale, very rarely 2. There is one loreal scale, less frequently none at all. There are 3-4 (rarely 5) supralabial scales anterior to the subocular. The prefrontal scales usually contact each other, less frequently separated by the frontal and frontonasal or by a special additional scale. The upper postocular scale contacts the parietal. Between the supraocular and supraciliary scales there are generally no granules or, very rarely, 1-5. The central temporal scale is absent or weakly developed, while the tympanic scale is generally well expressed. Usually two upper temporal scales are present, varying in size. The gular fold is absent or poorly developed. The collar is dentate and consists of 6-12 scales. The scales on the dorsal surface of the neck are relatively large, more or less hexagonal or rounded, smooth, without keels; along the vertebral line they are elongated hexagonal or oval, with keels. The ventral scales are arranged in 6 longitudinal rows; sometimes on each side there is one additional shorter row consisting of considerably smaller scales. The anal scale is small; the preanal scales number 4-8, with the central pair considerably enlarged. Femoral pores reach the knee joint. The viviparous lizard inhabits deciduous and coniferous forests, keeping to moist sites, forested sections of bogs, peatlands, overgrown clearcuts, burnt areas, road verges and roadside ditch slopes, forest edges, clearings and glades, animal tracks, and river banks. Near settlements it occurs in kitchen gardens and orchards. It usually keeps near fallen tree trunks, old stumps, and in tall grass near tree roots. It uses root cavities, moss hummocks, forest litter, small mammal burrows, spaces under loose bark, and hollow trees as shelters. In the Carpathians it occurs at altitudes up to 2,000 m above sea level. It swims and dives well, and can even run along the bottom of a water body and burrow into mud. Population density ranges from 1-2 to 78 individuals per hectare. The viviparous lizard feeds on spiders, beetles, ants, leafhoppers, caterpillars, butterflies, dipterans, orthopterans, and in small numbers also on centipedes, molluscs, and earthworms. It hunts both on the ground and on tree trunks and branches. It enters hibernation in late September to November. In the central regions of the European part of Ukraine it appears after hibernation in late March to early April, when snow has not yet fully melted. Mating occurs shortly after emergence (in April-May). Unlike other species in its genus, this lizard gives birth to live young (hence its name). The gestation period lasts 60-80 days. Between 8 and 12 young (in old females) or 2-6 (in young females) appear from early July. Neonates are born in an egg membrane, from which they emerge within no more than half an hour. The length of newly born individuals is 18-22 mm (without tail). Neonates usually stay in small groups of 5-6 individuals. Sexual maturity is reached in the third year of life. Source: Kurylenko V. E., Verves Yu. H. Amphibians and reptiles of the fauna of Ukraine: A reference guide [Educational manual]. - Kyiv: Heneza, 1998. - 208 p. - In Russian. Suborder Sauria Family Lacertidae Genus Darevskia Rock lizard - Darevskia saxicola [IMG_6] The colouration of the dorsal surface of the rock lizard varies from olive and green to brownish, brown, sandy, and grey. In males during the breeding season it is grass green or olive grey; in females it is dark sandy, less frequently brownish grey. The belly in males is lemon-yellow or dark orange in spring; in females it is pale yellow or rufous. On the lateral ventral scales, large (in males) or weakly expressed (in females) blue spots are present, sometimes interspersed with black ones. Down the middle of the back runs a longitudinal band formed by a single or double row of irregularly shaped dark spots and speckles. Bands of the same colour on the flanks are formed by more or less fragmented dark spots or circles with pale (and at chest level, blue) centres. Along the serrated upper edge of the lateral bands there usually runs a more or less pronounced row of small pale spots that often merge into a pale line. Individuals with an indistinct body pattern occur. The head is noticeably flattened, enabling easy passage through cracks and crevices. The rostral scale is usually separated from the frontonasal. The suture between the frontonasal and posterior nasal scales is not shorter than the suture between the anterior and posterior nasals. Between the upper temporal and supraocular scales there is a complete or interrupted row of 3-24 granules. The first upper temporal scale is moderately long, bluntly truncated posteriorly; the central temporal scale is small, medium-sized, or entirely absent; it is separated from the first upper temporal by 2-4 and from the small tympanic by 2-5 small scales. The ventral and pectoral scales are arranged in 20-28 transverse rows in males and 23-30 in females. The anal scale is large; anterior to it 1 (rarely 2) noticeably enlarged preanal scale(s) are more or less symmetrically positioned, or all are small and equal in size. The scales on the dorsal surface of the tibia are smooth or with indistinct keels, usually not exceeding the dorsal scales in size. Around the midpoint of the tibia in a single row there are 12-23 small scales. The scales of the anterior third of the tail have moderately developed longitudinal keels. It inhabits rocks and outcrops of hard rock. It is frequently encountered on stony slopes of gorges and among boulder accumulations along river banks; less frequently in trees, in forests, and on steep sea cliff slopes. It settles near human habitations, keeping to stone walls, fences, and ruins. Very mobile, it moves nimbly and swiftly on the steepest and most vertical rock faces. In mountains it occurs at altitudes above 3,000 m, penetrating into the mountain steppe and in places into the subalpine zones. It uses narrow cracks, fissures, and crevices in rocks, spaces between stones, and less frequently tree hollows, as shelters. In Crimea density is 80-100 individuals per 1 km transect. Active from February-March to September-November. It feeds on various small insects (dipterans, orthopterans, hymenopterans, and others). The lizard often catches prey in flight by making rapid leaps. Mating begins 3-4 weeks after emergence, following the first spring moult, typically in April. Egg-laying occurs 3-4 weeks after mating (in late May, and at high elevations in June). A clutch contains 2-6 eggs measuring 6-8 x 12-16 mm. The incubation period lasts 55-60 days. Juveniles appear in mid-July, August, or early September, with head-body length of 22-30 mm. Sexual maturity in the rock lizard is reached at two years of age. It breeds in captivity. Source: Kurylenko V. E., Verves Yu. H. Amphibians and reptiles of the fauna of Ukraine: A reference guide [Educational manual]. - Kyiv: Heneza, 1998. - 208 p. - In Russian. Suborder Sauria Family Lacertidae Genus Eremias Steppe runner - Eremias arguta [IMG_7] One of the most widely distributed and best-studied lizards. Its body is comparatively short and stocky, and its tail is short, thickened at the base, its length not exceeding the combined length of head and body. The primary dorsal colouration is grey with an olive, brownish, or greenish tinge, often corresponding to the colour of the substrate the animals inhabit. The subocular scale does not contact the edge of the mouth; the fifth infralabial scale most commonly does not reach the lower labials. There is one frontonasal scale, its length usually less than its width. The supraocular scales are not separated from the frontal and frontoparietal scales by a row of granules. Between the prefrontal scales there are in most cases no additional scales. The ear opening is more or less distinct. The gap between the femoral pore rows fits into the length of one row 0.9-2.5 times, averaging 1.5 times. The row of femoral pores usually does not reach the knee joint. The 9th and 10th scale rings of the tail each consist of 20-31 scales. The upper tail scales are smooth or more or less keeled. In the preanal area there are 5-15 scales. It inhabits primarily sandy beaches, sea dunes, and river valleys with sparse vegetation. In mountains it occurs at altitudes up to 1,500 m above sea level. In Crimea density is one individual per 100 m transect. On light soils the shelters of steppe runners are their own burrows up to 40 cm long and up to 25 cm deep, usually situated at the base of shrubs. In eastern parts of the range they more frequently use burrows of rodents, tortoises, and toads, soil cracks, and stone heaps. The size of the territory occupied by one individual varies from 25 to 180 m2 depending on food abundance. They enter hibernation in October to mid-November. They emerge in Crimea in mid-April; in other parts of Ukraine in early May. The diet consists of beetles, ants, butterflies and their caterpillars, dipterans, bugs, orthopterans, and other insects, occasionally molluscs. Mating occurs in April-May. Not less than 2.5 months elapse from mating to the appearance of juveniles. In Kherson Oblast and Crimea, egg-laying occurs in June; in central parts of Ukraine in July. The female deposits 1-12 eggs (averaging 3-4), measuring 6-10 x 10.5-20 mm. In different parts of the range, juveniles 27-35 mm long hatch from June to September. Sexual maturity is reached at approximately one year of age at a length of 55-59 mm. The steppe runner breeds in captivity. Source: Kurylenko V. E., Verves Yu. H. Amphibians and reptiles of the fauna of Ukraine: A reference guide [Educational manual]. - Kyiv: Heneza, 1998. - 208 p. - In Russian. Suborder Sauria Family Anguidae Genus Anguis Slow worm - Anguis fragilis [IMG_8] The slow worm has a long spindle-shaped body. Limbs are absent. Juveniles are silvery white or pale cream above with two closely set (sometimes merging into one) longitudinal stripes originating from a dark, more or less triangular, nape patch and running along the vertebral line. The flanks and belly are black or blackish brown, with a very sharp boundary between the pale dorsal and dark ventral surfaces. As the animal grows, the dorsal colouration gradually darkens and acquires a characteristic bronzed sheen. The flanks and belly conversely become lighter, and the original dark juvenile colouration persists usually only as two temporal stripes or lines running along the flanks. Adult males are often uniformly coloured with two rows of large blue, or less frequently blackish-brown, spots on the back, most clearly expressed in the anterior third. The eyelids are divided and immobile. The body scales are entirely smooth, without longitudinal keels, rounded, arranged in 21-36 longitudinal rows. Upper labial scales number 10-12. The nostril is pierced in a single scale. The ear opening is smaller than or, rarely, equal to the nostril. The frontal scale touches the large interparietal scale along the frontal suture, which in turn contacts the frontonasal scale in at least one point. One or two nasorostral scales are positioned posterior to the rostral. The teeth are conical, sharply pointed, and curved posteriorly. Teeth on the pterygoid and palatine bones are absent, unlike the European legless lizard. It inhabits predominantly broad-leaved and mixed forests, also occurring at the forest edge along field and meadow margins, on forest glades and clear-cuts, and in orchards. In mountains it occurs at altitudes up to 2,300 m above sea level. It conceals itself in forest litter, under fallen tree trunks, in rotting stumps, under roots, stones, and dead wood, as well as in burrows of burrowing animals. It feeds predominantly on earthworms, molluscs (particularly naked slugs), centipedes, woodlice, and also on insects and their larvae, primarily butterfly caterpillars. The recurved sharp teeth allow the slow worm to grip and swallow slippery earthworms, which it usually extracts from their burrows by gripping the prey in its mouth, stretching its whole body, and rapidly rotating around its own axis. It enters hibernation not earlier than the second half of September. Hibernation usually occurs under tree roots or in rodent burrows at depths up to 1 m; individuals sometimes aggregate in groups of several dozen. In spring they appear in mid-March to early April, and at more northerly latitudes in the first half of May. The slow worm is ovoviviparous. Gestation lasts approximately 90 days. Juveniles are born not earlier than mid-July; pregnant females are encountered through the end of August. A female gives birth to 5-26 (most commonly 8-12) young, 38-50 mm in length (without tail). Neonates are born in a transparent egg membrane, which they immediately rupture and then disperse in different directions. Sexual maturity is reached in the third year of life. Autotomy (shedding of the long tail) is characteristic of the slow worm and constitutes its only means of defence against predators. In many localities the slow worm is considered venomous and, being mistaken for a snake, is ruthlessly persecuted. In reality the slow worm is entirely harmless, tolerates captivity very well, breeds in it, and quickly becomes accustomed to humans. Cases of individuals living 20-30 years in a terrarium are known. Source: Kurylenko V. E., Verves Yu. H. Amphibians and reptiles of the fauna of Ukraine: A reference guide [Educational manual]. - Kyiv: Heneza, 1998. - 208 p. - In Russian. Suborder Sauria Family Anguidae Genus Pseudopus European legless lizard - Pseudopus apodus [IMG_9] The European legless lizard is the largest limbless lizard in the family Anguidae. Its large four-sided head with a pointed snout is well demarcated from a slightly laterally compressed serpentine body that passes into a long tail constituting 2/3 of the total body length. The lateral skin folds characteristic of this genus begin slightly behind the ear and end at the sides of the anal opening, where the rudiments of the hind limbs are barely visible as papilla-like structures. The dorsal scales form 12-14 longitudinal rows; they bear longitudinal keels, especially strongly developed in juveniles. The ventral scales are arranged in 10 longitudinal rows (also keeled in juveniles, smooth in adults). The ear opening is not smaller than the nostril. Adult lizards are coloured olive-brown, dirty yellow, or reddish brown. Against this background irregularly shaped dark spots are sometimes scattered. The ventral surface is usually paler. Juvenile European legless lizards are yellowish grey above with 16-22 transverse rows of brownish zigzag bands continuing on the tail as elongated spots. Similar bands are located below and on the sides of the head, as well as on its dorsal surface, where they form a distinctive pattern. Traces of transverse bands are sometimes retained in individuals up to 200 mm in length, i.e. up to approximately three years of age. The European legless lizard inhabits predominantly foothill plains and river valleys, occupying open deciduous forests, forest edges, scrubland, ravines, various types of thickets, and treeless foothill elevations. It is also encountered on montane dry steppe sites, stony slopes with sparse vegetation, often in the immediate vicinity of water. It willingly enters water and swims excellently. In some areas it is common on cultivated land in orchards, vineyards, crop fields, and often near settlements. In mountains it occurs at altitudes up to 2,300 m above sea level. It can climb onto shrub branches and reed stems. It uses burrows of various burrowing animals and spaces under stones and between shrub roots as shelters. When foraging it usually does not venture farther than 200-300 m from its shelter. After hibernation it appears in March to mid-April. With the onset of summer heat (beginning in late June) it leaves its shelters only in the morning and evening and remains active for most of the night. It sometimes enters summer dormancy that in some localities directly transitions into winter hibernation. The primary food of the European legless lizard consists of insects, principally beetles, among which dung beetles, darkling beetles, jewel beetles, rose chafers, ground beetles, and cockchafers predominate. In addition to invertebrates, larger individuals consume rodents (especially neonates), shrews, lizards, small snakes, and nestlings of ground- and shrub-nesting birds. Adults sometimes prey on their own juveniles. According to some data, European legless lizards also consume plant matter (feeding on the flesh of fallen apricots, grape berries, etc.). The female deposits 6-10 eggs, 20-38 mm in size, in mid-June to early July. Juveniles 100-125 mm long (without tail) hatch from late July to September. Sexual maturity in the European legless lizard is reached at approximately four years of age, when the body length is 310-320 mm. It possesses the ability of autotomy. No captive breeding data are available. In Ukraine it is a rare species and is listed in the Red Data Book of Ukraine. Source: Kurylenko V. E., Verves Yu. H. Amphibians and reptiles of the fauna of Ukraine: A reference guide [Educational manual]. - Kyiv: Heneza, 1998. - 208 p. - In Russian. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Eastern steppe viper - Vipera renardi Order: Squamata Oppel, 1811 - Scaled reptiles Family: Viperidae Oppel, 1811 - Vipers Genus: Vipera Laurenti, 1768 - Vipers Vipera berus (Linnaeus, 1758) - Common adder [IMG_10] [IMG_11] Description. The body length of the common adder reaches 75 cm; the tail length is 8-12 cm in males and 6-10 cm in females. There are 19 rows of scales around the middle of the body. Certain differences between the sexes are noted in the number of ventral (males 130-158, females 140-160) and subcaudal scales (males 32-48 pairs, females 24-38 pairs). The head of the adder is large, well demarcated from the neck. The dorsal surface of the head is covered with small scales, among which three large ones are present - the frontal and two parietals. The nasal opening is pierced in the centre of the nasal scale. The rostral scale contacts two apical scales. The dorsal colouration of the adder is grey and brown with olive, dark brown, and reddish tints. A typical zigzag band of black or dark-brown colour runs along the vertebral line. An X-shaped pattern is present on the head. A dark stripe extends from the eye to the corner of the mouth. The belly is grey, brown, or black in colour, often spotted. The tip of the tail is pale, yellowish, or reddish. Complete and partial melanists are frequently encountered. In neonatal adders, grey or olive tones are absent from the colouration. Distribution. This is the most well-known and widely distributed viper species in Eurasia. In Europe its range extends north to 68 degrees N latitude, south to approximately 45 degrees N. In north-western Russia the adder reaches beyond the Arctic Circle, where it is known from the Lapland Nature Reserve and the shore of the Barents Sea. In the Asian part of its range the northern distribution boundary follows the Lena River valley to 62 degrees N, and in Western Siberia to 64 degrees N. The eastern boundary of the range passes through the eastern part of Chita Oblast. Outside the former USSR the adder inhabits almost all of Central, Western, and Northern Europe, North-Western China, and the Mongolian Altai in Mongolia. Several subspecies have been described within the vast range, including the Sakhalin adder (V. b. sachalinensis Tzarevsky, 1916) and the forest-steppe adder, or Nikolsky's adder (V. b. nikolskii Vedmederja, Grubant et Rudaeva, 1986), which are here treated as distinct species - V. sachalinensis and V. nikolskii (see species accounts). Ecology. The common adder inhabits virtually the entire forest zone of the Palaearctic: mixed coniferous-deciduous forests and the taiga zone; along river valleys it extends northward to the forest-tundra and southward to the forest-steppe. In mountains it ascends to 3,000 m above sea level. Within its range the adder is limited by the availability of hibernation sites. It generally hibernates in raised bogs and sphagnum pine forests, using rodent burrows, semi-decayed tree roots, peat cavities, and other suitable shelters. The temperature in hibernation sites does not drop below +2 to +4 degrees C. Snakes hibernate singly, in small groups, or form large aggregations (up to 200-300 individuals) in the most suitable hibernation sites, which are used annually. Toads, frogs, newts, slow worms, and other animals may also be present there with the adders. The duration of hibernation in the central zone of Russia is 180 days; in the north and south of the range it differs by 2-3 weeks. Local aggregations at hibernation sites of up to several hundred snakes are observed during the pre-hibernation period, while summer aggregations reach several dozen snakes per hectare. In the north-eastern European part of Russia the distribution of the adder is uneven, with typical "snake hotspots", but even within them density does not exceed 1-2 individuals per hectare. Only in anthropogenic habitats (abandoned settlements, timber-industry waste dumps) it is abundant - up to 10 individuals per hectare. The timing of emergence from hibernation is protracted: in the central zone of Russia this occurs in April to early May; in Central Europe adders sometimes appear as early as February; emergence on plains and foothills is earlier than in mountains. The active period lasts from April to October. Adders are generally sedentary and reside in the same place, venturing no more than 100-150 m from it. After hibernation they move to summer biotopes located several hundred metres away. The maximum recorded distance from the hibernation site is 1.5 km, and suitable hibernation sites may be located at even greater distances. Mating in the adder occurs 2-4 weeks after emergence from hibernation shelters. During this period male combat tournaments are observed, in which the stronger opponent attempts to press the rival's head to the ground in order to gain access to the female. The gestation period lasts approximately three months. Embryo development relies not only on yolk reserves in the egg but also occurs via the maternal bloodstream. The common adder gives birth to 5-12 young with a body length of 160-180 mm. However, the number of eggs in the oviducts sometimes reaches 20, but some may be resorbed during development. In high-mountain and other regions, birth of young in the following spring is possible. Neonatal adders remain near the birth site until the first moult, after which they disperse and begin searching for food. However, they can survive without food for several weeks on nutrients received while in the egg. Sexual maturity is reached at 4-5 years of age when body length in males is 340 mm and in females 450 mm. Recorded lifespan is up to 15 years, and according to the latest field marking results it can reach 30 years. Throughout the day adders are predominantly active during daylight hours, when they bask in the sun repeatedly. On hot days they hunt at dusk. Adders feed on small mammals (voles, shrews), brown frogs, and the diet of juvenile snakes includes lizards and small frogs. Blind vole pups are taken by adders from burrows. During hunting they employ both active searching and passive ambush strategies. The venom causes severe poisoning, but fatalities are extremely rare, and complications are usually the result of incorrect treatment. The common adder is kept in serpentariums for venom extraction used subsequently in pharmacology. The population size of the common adder has declined in many locations due to alteration or destruction of its habitats and hibernation sites, primarily bogs. In the central zone of the European part of Russia snakes have frequently begun to appear on suburban plots (due to the destruction of familiar habitats and the appearance of convenient shelters in the form of cellars, crawl spaces, etc.) in connection with intensive construction of new buildings. Stable populations with stable numbers are maintained in undisturbed forest tracts.

Ananyeva et al., 1998; Anufriev, Bobretsov, 1996; Bannikov et al., 1977; Bozhansky, 1986; Borkin, Darevsky, 1987; Dvigubsky, 1832; Dunaev, Orlova, 2003; Ivanter, 1975; Larionov, 1977; Nikolsky, 1916; Terentyev and Chernov, 1936; Terentyev and Chernov, 1940; Terentyev and Chernov, 1949; Krassawzeff, 1932; Mertens und Wermuth, 1960 Order: Squamata Oppel, 1811 - Scaled reptiles Family: Viperidae Oppel, 1811 - Vipers Genus: Vipera Laurenti, 1768 - Vipers [IMG_12] [IMG_13] Vipera renardi (Christoph, 1861) - Steppe viper Description. The steppe viper is a large snake of the ursinii complex with a body length of approximately 550 mm and a tail length of 70-90 mm; females are often larger than males (Ananyeva et al., 1998). In the Volga region the maximum body length of males reaches 610 mm, of females 630 mm (Bakiev et al., 2002). The head is slightly elongated; the edges of the snout are raised. The dorsal surface of the head anterior to the frontal and supraocular scales is covered with small irregularly shaped scales. The rostral scale usually contacts one apical scale. The nasal opening is pierced in the lower part of the nasal scale. There are 19-21 rows of scales around the middle of the body. Ventral scales number 120-152; subcaudal scales 20-32 pairs. Dorsally the viper is coloured brownish grey, with a paler grey vertebral area and a black or dark-brown zigzag stripe along the vertebral line, sometimes broken into separate spots. Along the flanks there is a row of indistinct dark spots. On the dorsal surface of the head there is a dark pattern. The belly is grey with pale speckles. Melanists are very rare and occur in particular in Samara Oblast. Distribution. The steppe viper is distributed across the territory of the former USSR in the forest-steppe and steppe zones of the European part (including Ukraine and Crimea), in Kazakhstan, southern Siberia, and also in Kyrgyzstan, eastern Uzbekistan, the northern part of Tajikistan, and western China. It extends eastward to the Altai and Dzungaria, and northward to the Volga-Kama region. In Transcaucasia it occurs in isolation in Azerbaijan. Until recently this species was considered the easternmost subspecies of the polymorphic complex V. ursinii - V. u. renardi. It is now an independent species (V. renardi) with three subspecies, of which the nominotypical form occupies the greater part of the range - the low-mountain and foothill districts of Ukraine (including Crimea), Russia, Azerbaijan, and Kazakhstan. The Tien Shan steppe viper - V. r. tienshanica Nilson et Andren, 2001 - includes high-mountain populations of Kyrgyzstan, partly south-eastern Kazakhstan, the northern districts of Tajikistan, eastern Uzbekistan, and China (Xinjiang). The third subspecies - V. r. parursinii Nilson et Andren, 2001 - is represented by high-mountain populations from northern Xinjiang (China). The low-mountain populations of the Kazakhstani Altai (Saur Range) and partly Xinjiang, China, constitute the "Altai form" V. renardi. For the territory of the former USSR, in addition to the three subspecies of V. renardi, the following closely related species can be noted: V. eriwanensis (high-mountain populations of Armenia, western Azerbaijan, and adjacent areas of Turkey), V. ebneri (high-mountain populations of northern Iran and southern Azerbaijan), and V. lotievi (high-mountain populations of the Caucasus). Ecology. The steppe viper is a typical inhabitant of flatland and mountain wormwood steppes; it is also encountered on steppe-like alpine meadows, dry scrub-covered slopes, clay ravines, and semi-desert habitats. It ascends to 1,500 m above sea level in mountains. In its primary habitats the steppe viper is a common species. Local aggregations of up to several dozen individuals per hectare are sometimes observed. In the northern Lower Volga region (the northern boundary of the species range) the viper is widely but patchily distributed, and its population density does not exceed 2-5 individuals per hectare; on individual sections of Saratov Oblast it amounts to 4-9 individuals per hectare. In the central Ciscaucasus the snake occurs sporadically in all natural landscapes and their derivatives. Population density is maximal in steppe landscapes, where it reaches 6.67 individuals per hectare. In Kalmykia the mean population density is 0.5 individuals per hectare; in the south-western part of the republic it is 5-6 individuals per hectare; in "snake hotspots" it reaches 10-12 individuals (Kireyev, 1983). The activity season lasts from late March-April to October. After winter hibernation it appears when the temperature is not below 4-8 degrees C. In spring the viper is encountered on the surface during the day; in summer months in the morning and evening. The duration of the activity season in the Ciscaucasus is 210-225 days. The mating period is in April-May; in August females give birth to 3-10 young 130-160 mm in length. In the Ciscaucasus gestation lasts 90-120 days; the female gives birth to 4-24 young in July-September. The length of neonates is 110-130 mm with a body mass of 3.2-4.4 g. Sexual maturity is reached in the third year of life at a body length of 270-300 mm. On land the viper moves rather slowly, but swims well and can climb shrub branches and low-growing tree branches. In search of food it visits colonies of small rodents and bird nests. The steppe viper preys on small vertebrates (small rodents, chicks of ground-nesting birds, and lizards), orthopteran insects (locusts, grasshoppers, crickets), and arachnids. Juvenile vipers feed on insects and small lizards. Formerly the steppe viper was used for venom extraction, but this exploitation has ceased due to the sharp decline in numbers. In many regions (for example, in Ukraine) it has virtually disappeared or survives only in small areas due to ploughing of land. In all European countries this species is listed for protection under the Bern Convention as being threatened with extinction. The steppe viper is listed in the Red Data Book of Ukraine and has been included in the Annotated List of Taxa and Populations Requiring Special Attention. Ananyeva et al., 1998; Bakiev et al., 2002; Bannikov et al., 1977; Borkin, Darevsky, 1987; Dunaev, Orlova, 2003; Karmyshev, Tabachishin, 2003; Kireyev, 1983; Nikolsky, 1905; Nikolsky, 1913; Nikolsky, 1916; Terentyev and Chernov, 1936; Terentyev and Chernov, 1949; Tertishnikov, 1992; Tertishnikov, Vysotin, 1987; Nilson, Andren, 2001; Boulenger, 1893; Mertens und Wermuth, 1960