"The Multi-Species Organism" — Text by V.I. Droganov

THE MULTI-SPECIES ORGANISM. Abstract The most fundamental question in biology is the question of the emergence of living matter on Earth and its subsequent evolution. Despite being the most fundamental question, it is treated only superficially in educational institutions. Not a single biology textbook contains even one hypothesis that examines the evolution of living matter from its appearance on Earth to the death of the Solar System. There is no comparative analysis of hypotheses. The evidence for or against hypotheses is sparse and does not meet today's educational standards. One of the goals of modern education is the development of critical thinking skills in students and schoolchildren. Essential criteria of critical thinking include the ability, when addressing a question, to identify a thesis, arguments, and demonstration, and the ability to prove and refute in a logically correct manner. In the present work, two variants of the evolution of living matter are examined: biotic and abiotic. Evolution is considered from the perspective of activity, need, survival means, part and whole, determinism, and probability theory. It is presented in the form of a triad: thesis, argument, demonstration. Such a presentation of material promotes the development of critical thinking in teachers, schoolchildren, and students studying biology, philosophy, psychology, and psychotherapy. Preface. One of the primary tasks of a psychologist and psychotherapist is the development of constructive dialogue skills. However, as practice has shown, even after training, we rarely apply these skills in the search for truth or a better solution to a problem. And this applies not only to family and professional dialogues, but to scientific ones as well. On this matter, the renowned physicist Max Planck wrote: "Ideas are rarely introduced by gradually convincing their opponents. In reality, what happens is that opponents die out, and the growing generation becomes immediately familiar with the new idea." Why has humanity, despite its 100,000-year existence, so rarely sought to solve problems through constructive dialogue? There are many answers to this question. The most persuasive answer is provided by the theory of needs. Needs are a form of manifestation of the intentional nature of the psyche, according to which a living organism is prompted to carry out qualitatively defined forms of activity necessary for the preservation and development of the individual and the species. From the perspective of needs, humanity today has no need for such a survival tool as constructive dialogue (the time has not yet come) for the preservation of the individual and the species. If constructive dialogue is not a survival tool for the individual and the species, then naturally we will use it rarely. The answer, while logical, is not complete. The fact is that all definitions of need known to me reduce to the conclusion that there are only two classes of vital needs: • needs directed toward the preservation of the organism; • needs directed toward the preservation of the species. However, having studied the activity of organisms, scientists concluded that the activity of any organism is directed not only toward the search for and formation of survival means for the individual and the species. In their view, the activity of organisms is also directed toward the search for and formation of survival means for living matter on Earth (specific activity: they automatically maintain the homeostasis of the biosphere, convert inorganic energy into organic energy, etc.). The evidence presented appears sufficiently convincing. Among the specific activities of humans is the activity directed toward the construction of spacecraft. A spacecraft is capable of delivering the seeds of life to planets in other galaxies. The transfer of the seeds of life to planets in other galaxies means that Earth's living matter is capable of reproduction. That is, we have also identified activity directed toward the preservation of Earth's living matter in the Universe. By comparing the activity of organisms with the activity of cells, one can be convinced that the activity of organisms is analogous to the activity of cells in a multicellular organism. If the activity of individual organisms of Earth's living matter is analogous to the activity of cells in a multicellular organism, and the activity of species is analogous to the activity of tissues and organs of a multicellular organism, then by this criterion, Earth's living matter constitutes a multi-species organism. If Earth's living matter truly constitutes a multi-species organism, then for its reproduction in the Cosmos, there is no need to develop constructive dialogue skills in all of humanity. It would be sufficient if only a small part of humanity possesses these skills. That is, we have obtained yet another answer to the question posed. However, the answer will be valid only if Earth's living matter truly constitutes a multi-species organism. Hypothesis. Earth's living matter is a unified whole — a distinctive multi-species organism with a lifespan of approximately 10 billion years. In this organism, individual organisms perform the function of cells, and species perform the function of tissues and organs. Some species supply the organism with energy, others with oxygen, still others perform the function of eggs (seeds of life), and yet others are part of the reproductive system, etc. According to this hypothesis, intelligent organisms are part of the reproductive system of Earth's living matter. The function of intelligent species (of humanity?) is the delivery of the seeds of life to uninhabited planets within their own galaxy and even beyond its boundaries (the goal of evolution). The meaning of evolution is the preservation of living matter in the Universe. That is, the evolution of Earth's living matter is purposeful and genetically determined toward reproduction in the Cosmos. Novelty. Many scientists (Vernadsky, Teilhard de Chardin, etc.) have expressed the view that Earth's living matter constitutes an organism. However, there is not a single hypothesis (prior to 2006) in which Earth's living matter is called not simply an organism but an organism in which individual organisms perform the function of cells and species perform the function of tissues and organs. Therefore, this assumption can be considered novel. Also novel is the fact that Earth's living matter is examined for the first time from the perspective of activity, need, survival means, part and whole. The novelty also consists in the identification of two new types of activity of individual organisms of Earth's living matter. The activity is directed toward the preservation of: • the life of Earth's living matter on Earth (specific activity: they produce oxygen, convert inorganic energy into organic energy, form an environment suitable for the life of Earth's living matter on Earth, i.e., they maintain biosphere homeostasis). • Earth's living matter in the Universe (reproduction in the Universe, i.e., delivery of the seeds of life to planets of other galaxies). And as a consequence of this activity, two new classes of needs and survival means have been identified. Needs and survival means directed toward the preservation of: • the life of Earth's living matter on Earth; • Earth's living matter in the Universe. Also for the first time, phylogenesis is examined from the perspective of part and whole. If the evolution (ontogenesis) of a part of the whole is determined by biological interaction (genes), then the evolution (phylogenesis) of the whole (Earth's living matter) is also determined by biological interaction. Furthermore, for the first time, both the biotic variant of evolution (the hypothesis of directed panspermia) and the abiotic variant of evolution (Darwin's theory) are examined from the moment of the appearance of living matter on Earth to the death of the Solar System. Criteria of an organism. Two characteristics are attributed as key criteria of an organism: the activity of cells of a multicellular organism and ontogenesis. The activity of cells is directed toward the preservation of: a) their own life; b) cells of their own phenotype (cell division); c) the life of the multicellular organism (specific activity: production of bile, hormones, maintenance of homeostasis of the internal environment of the organism, etc.); d) the species of the multicellular organism (reproduction of the multicellular organism). The above-listed activity of cells is characteristic of the cells of any multicellular organism. And if this activity is characteristic of the cells of any multicellular organism, then this criterion is a key characteristic of an organism. Ontogenesis. Given that the ontogenesis of any multicellular organism is determined by biological interaction (i.e., by genes), this characteristic is also attributed as a key criterion of an organism. If Earth's living matter truly constitutes a multi-species organism, then the activity of individual organisms of Earth's living matter must be analogous to the activity of cells of a multicellular organism, and the evolution of living matter (phylogenesis) must be determined by biological interaction, i.e., by genes. Evidence from the perspective of activity. If Earth's living matter truly constitutes a multi-species organism, then the activity of individuals of this organism must be analogous to the activity of cells of a multicellular organism. To confirm or refute this hypothesis, let us compare the activity of cells of a multicellular organism with the activity of an individual of the unicellular organism blue-green algae. The activity of cells of a multicellular organism is directed toward the preservation of: a) their own life; b) cells of their own phenotype (cell division); c) the life of the multicellular organism (formation of the internal environment, production of bile, hormones, etc.); d) their own species (reproduction of the multicellular organism). The activity of an individual blue-green alga is directed toward the preservation of: a) its own life; b) its own species (reproduction); c) Earth's living matter on Earth (specific activity: it produces oxygen, which is a survival means for living matter, i.e., it forms an environment suitable for the life of living matter; it converts inorganic energy into organic energy; moreover, the organism serves as food (energy) for other species). This example shows that the activity of an individual blue-green alga and the activity of cells of a multicellular organism are analogous in three parameters. If the activity of individual organisms of Earth's living matter is analogous to the activity of cells of a multicellular organism in three parameters, then it can be assumed that it is analogous to the activity of cells of a multicellular organism in the fourth parameter as well. That is, Earth's living matter must have species of organisms that ensure the reproduction of Earth's living matter in the Universe. In essence, humanity is such a species, since it is today capable of delivering the seeds of life to planets of other galaxies. The above reasoning demonstrates that the activity of individuals of Earth's living matter is directed: a) toward the preservation of their own life; b) toward the preservation of their own species (reproduction); c) toward the preservation of the life of Earth's living matter on Earth (specific activity: they produce oxygen, convert inorganic energy into organic energy, form an environment suitable for the life of Earth's living matter on Earth, i.e., they automatically maintain biosphere homeostasis, etc.); d) toward the preservation of Earth's living matter in the Universe (reproduction in the Universe, i.e., delivery of the seeds of life to planets of other galaxies). If the activity of individuals of Earth's living matter is analogous to the activity of cells of a multicellular organism, and the activity of species is analogous to the activity of tissues and organs of a multicellular organism, then by this criterion, Earth's living matter constitutes a multi-species organism. Evidence from the perspective of needs and survival means. It is today considered proven that the activity of any organism is determined by needs. From the perspective of vital need, the activity of an organism is directed toward the search for and formation of survival means. Given that the activity of organisms of Earth's living matter is directed toward the preservation of their own life, the preservation of their own species, the preservation of living matter on Earth, and the preservation of Earth's living matter in the Universe, the survival means (vital needs) are likewise divided into four analogous classes. Having studied many classifications of vital needs (survival means), I noted that two classes of vital needs are absent from them: needs directed toward the preservation of Earth's living matter on Earth, and needs directed toward the preservation of Earth's living matter in the Universe. Yet the reality of these needs is proven by the activity of organisms. Classification of survival means. All survival means can be divided into four classes. 1. Means ensuring the survival of the organism (unicellular, multicellular). 2. Means ensuring the survival of the species. 3. Means ensuring the survival of Earth's living matter on Earth. 4. Means ensuring the survival of Earth's living matter in the Universe. Furthermore, survival means are divided into material, social, and sensory (emotions), terminal and intermediate, innate and acquired during life, survival means located within the organism, and survival means located outside the organism. Let us first consider what survival means a unicellular organism requires. • Terminal means ensuring the survival of a unicellular organism: building material (organic and inorganic substances); • energy (sunlight, inorganic substances, organic substances). Intermediate means. Inorganic: • microenvironment, i.e., the environment surrounding the organism that is suitable for life (physicochemical characteristics of the medium); • macroenvironment, in which there are zones of microenvironment suitable for the life of the organism, or zones of macroenvironment from which a microenvironment suitable for the life of the organism can be created. Organic: • organs and organ systems of the organism that utilize external energy for the needs of the organism; • organs and organ systems of the organism that utilize building material for the construction of its own organism and daughter organisms; • means of searching for a microenvironment, means of creating a microenvironment, means of creating a macroenvironment suitable for life. Terminal means ensuring the survival of the unicellular species. • genetic programs of reproduction; • means of reproduction. Intermediate means ensuring the survival of the unicellular species. • genetic programs ensuring the survival of the organism up to the state (age) of reproduction. Survival means of multicellular species. A multicellular organism is a colony of cells of two phenotypes. The first phenotype is immortal, i.e., the phenotype of unicellular organisms. The immortal phenotype includes cells that divide indefinitely within the organism (zooids of Volvox, stem cells, meristem cells — since these cells divide indefinitely, they are essentially unicellular organisms). The second phenotype is mortal (somatic). The mortal phenotype includes somatic cells, which divide only a certain number of times and then perish. The task of the somatic phenotype is to create a microenvironment for the cells of the immortal phenotype in which they are capable of dividing indefinitely. The genotype of both phenotypes is identical. Somatic cells do not divide indefinitely because the genes of "immortality" are blocked. The blocking mechanism operates for as long as is required for the reproduction of a sufficient number of offspring to ensure the preservation of the given species in the surrounding environment. • The survival means of multicellular species are immortal cells. • The survival means of immortal cells is the microenvironment created by somatic cells. • The means effecting the transformation of an immortal cell into a mortal one is the substance that blocks the immortality genes. Means ensuring the survival of species living in communities. Terminal means: • genetic program of reproduction; • means of reproduction. Intermediate means. Emotions. Emotions belong to intermediate survival means. They activate (or deactivate) various survival programs and also serve as reward (or punishment) for the satisfaction (or non-satisfaction) of a particular need. Material: a) organs and organ systems; b) microenvironment; c) macroenvironment. Social: A) Communities: • family; • herd; • tribe. B) Behavior. Behavioral programs: • leader program; • subordinate program. Interpersonal relations: • authoritarian (based on the principles of unequal cooperation); • conflictual. Problem-solving approaches: • constructive monologue; • non-constructive dialogue, non-constructive polylogue. Terminal: • Macroenvironment suitable for the life of living matter. Intermediate: • Species of organisms that form an environment suitable for the life of living matter. • Evolutionary programs directed toward the creation of new species of organisms capable of ensuring the survival of living matter on Earth. Means ensuring the survival of Earth's living matter in the Cosmos. Terminal: • "seeds of life"; • a planet suitable for life; • means of delivering "seeds of life" to planets suitable for life. Intermediate means ensuring the survival of living matter in the Cosmos. Material: • inorganic matter from which a vehicle capable of reaching planets of other galaxies can be constructed; • intelligent species (organic matter) capable of creating such a vehicle; • evolutionary programs directed toward the creation of species capable of ensuring the survival of living matter in the Cosmos (species capable of delivering "seeds of life" to planets of other galaxies). Social means by which an intelligent species ensures the survival of living matter in the Cosmos. Communities: • egalitarian small social group. Behavior: • democrat program (on equal terms). Interpersonal relations: • egalitarian (based on the principles of equal cooperation) interpersonal relations (if not in the species as a whole, then in part of it). Problem-solving: • the ability to seek a solution to a problem through constructive dialogue, constructive polylogue (if not in the species as a whole, then in part of it). Means of transmitting, searching for, and storing knowledge: • writing; • science. Naturally, the above classification of survival means is not exhaustive. However, this classification allows any survival means under study to be assigned to one of the four classes, and thereby to predict and explain the reaction of an organism, a species, and living matter as a whole to the absence or presence of that means. To determine to which class a survival means belongs, it is necessary to mentally remove that means and to hypothesize what would happen to the organism, the species, and living matter. Example 1. Authoritarian relations. Authoritarian relations are built on the principles of unequal cooperation (leader — subordinate). If these relations were removed, no species living in communities would be able to survive. Consequently, authoritarian relations constitute a survival means for species living in communities. Example 2. The social means — family. Most classifications do not classify the family as a vital need. Indeed, an organism from a species living a family lifestyle can survive for a time outside the family. However, no species leading a family lifestyle would be able to raise and rear offspring without such a means as the family. Therefore, the family is a vital need and belongs to species survival means. Example 3. Spacecraft. Neither the human species as a whole nor the individual in particular needs a spacecraft for survival on Earth. However, without a spacecraft it is impossible to deliver the seeds of life to planets of other galaxies. That is, a spacecraft is a survival means for living matter in the Cosmos. Example 4. Constructive dialogue, egalitarian interpersonal relations, egalitarian small social group. Why are these means so rarely encountered in human society? The fact is that humanity has lived without these means since the day of its existence, and could live until the death of the Solar System — that is, for the human individual and for humanity as a species they do not constitute survival means. However, it is impossible to build a spacecraft capable of delivering the seeds of life to planets of other galaxies without these means. Therefore, these means belong to the survival means of Earth's living matter in the Cosmos. They are rarely encountered because, in order to build a spacecraft, there is no need to develop these means in all of humanity. The last two examples show that survival means for Earth's living matter in the Cosmos exist in reality. This constitutes evidence that Earth's living matter is capable of reproducing in the Universe. And if Earth's living matter is capable of reproducing in the Cosmos, it can naturally be recognized as an organism. The evolution of living matter from the perspective of determinism and probability theory. There are many definitions of the concept of determinism. And depending on what meaning we assign to the concept of determinism, one and the same phenomenon, one and the same process, is called either determined or undetermined. To avoid confusion, I propose to assign a single meaning to the concept of determinism in the reasoning that follows. In my view, the most apt definition of determinism is the one presented below. Determinism — (from Latin determino — I define, I determine by) — a general scientific concept and philosophical doctrine concerning causality, regularity, genetic connection, interaction, and the conditionality of all phenomena and processes occurring in the world. This philosophical doctrine asserts that the result of interaction between bodies in a process or phenomenon is determined (determined) by the state and number of bodies participating in that phenomenon or process, the distance between the bodies, and the time elapsed from the beginning of the process or phenomenon. A law is a verbal or mathematical description of a process or phenomenon. A law is a described order. It explains what consequence can be expected following a specific interaction between bodies. If a given event leads not to one specific but to one of two or more consequences, such a situation signals that our knowledge is incomplete — some hidden causes that disrupt the order have not yet been identified. (The laws of interaction between bodies do not change; only the quality and quantity of bodies participating in a given process or phenomenon and the time elapsed from the beginning of the process or phenomenon change.) From the perspective of this definition of a Law, the description of any process or phenomenon constitutes a Law. Given that ideally, for objective reasons, it is impossible to exactly replicate a process, the results in analogous processes will differ somewhat from one another. Laws are divided into statistical and dynamic. Dynamic laws reflect unambiguous cause-and-effect relationships subject to Laplacian determinism. A statistical law is a probabilistic dependence expressed in quantitative terms between the phenomena under study. The process of the development of the Universe consists of many repeated processes. Repeated processes always differ from one another, if not in the number of bodies, then in their quality, and also in the time elapsed from the beginning of the development of the galaxy (Universe). The smaller the differences in repeated processes, the greater the similarity between the results of those processes. In any process involving a biological object, physical, chemical, and biological interactions coexist simultaneously — this is a unified process. However, scientists have separated these interactions for the convenience of study. Chemists have discovered the dynamic laws of chemical interaction and described them. Knowing these laws, we can predict what the result of a chemical interaction will be. The result of a chemical interaction (a chemical reaction) is determined (determined) by the chemical composition of the bodies participating in the process. In physical interaction, the result is determined by the physical characteristics of the bodies (mass, density, form, etc.). The result of biological interaction is determined (determined) by the genes of the objects participating in the process. Knowing the dynamic biological Laws, we can predict the result of biological interaction. For example, the result of the development process of a human zygote will be a multicellular human organism, not that of a monkey. This interaction is described by the following Law: "The children of parents belong to the same species as their parents." Naturally, like any dynamic Law, this Law operates only under certain conditions. The emergence of a new species is described by a different Law: "The children of parents do not belong to the species of their parents." Today there exist two scientific hypotheses explaining the evolution (emergence of new species) of living matter. One hypothesis proposes that the driving force of evolution is chance; the other, that it is a regular process. A regular process is of two types: 1) Dynamic — one whose result can be predicted, knowing the dynamic laws; 2) Statistical (probabilistic) — one whose result can be predicted, knowing the statistical laws (the laws of probability theory). Some scientists consider only that process to be regular in which the result of evolution is determined biologically by genetics and which can be described by a dynamic biological law. That is, if the "seeds of life" were transferred from Earth to another planet where conditions are identical to those on Earth, then evolution (the process) would proceed according to the scheme known to us. And the difference between the results of evolution would be approximately the same as the difference between the phenotypes of identical genotypes. Chance refers to a situation in which not biological, but physicochemical interaction has led to the formation of a new species. That is, at the level of physicochemical interaction, mutation is regular and can be described by physicochemical laws. But the fact that this mutation led to the formation of a new species is what constitutes the element of chance (Darwin's Theory). According to this hypothesis, if the "seeds of life" from Earth were transferred to another planet similar to Earth, evolution would proceed according to an entirely different scenario. Another group of scientists considers regular even a process in which the result of evolution (the formation of a new species) is determined by physicochemical interaction, i.e., by chance. Indeed, despite the fact that the result of this interaction is random, it is in reality regular and can be predicted using the laws of probability theory. Probability theory is a mathematical science that studies the regularities of mass random phenomena (events). A random event (or simply an event) is any phenomenon that may or may not occur under a given set of conditions. Each such realization of this set of conditions is called a trial. If, for example, a trial consists of flipping a coin, then the appearance of heads is an event; if the trial (experiment, process) is the evolution of living matter from the moment of its appearance on a planet until the death of the galaxy, then the transfer of living matter (seeds of life) from one planet to a planet of another galaxy is an event. The complete group of events is the set of all possible outcomes of an experiment, of repeated processes and phenomena. A random event in each trial is in essence regular rather than random, since the laws of interaction between bodies do not change — only the number and state of the bodies interacting in the experiment change. For example. In the flipping of a coin, the experiment involves the interaction of: a person, a coin, air, and the Earth. The interaction between these bodies occurs in accordance with physical and chemical laws. The result of the physical interaction is: heads appearing, collision with the Earth with a certain force, collision with the Earth at a certain coordinate point. In a repeated trial, the laws of interaction between the bodies have not changed; the difference between the results of the interaction is explained by the fact that over the time elapsed between experiments, the Earth, air, and coin have changed to a lesser degree, while the force and location of the person's strike on the coin have changed to a greater degree. In other words, probability theory predicts with what frequency regular outcomes (random events) will occur during the interaction of bodies in repeated phenomena, experiments, and processes. The smaller the difference between the bodies participating in the experiment, the less the results will differ from one another. Example 1. If a coin is flipped not by a person but by a machine that strikes the coin at a specific point with a specific force, the results of the experiment will differ little from one another. Example 2. The genotypes of monozygotic zygotes are identical. The evolution (ontogenesis, development) of organisms up to age 5 proceeded under identical conditions. The phenotypes of the twins at age 5 will differ little from one another. Example 3. The genotypes of monozygotic twins are identical. One twin was raised in a family, the other in a wolf pack until age 5. Result: the twins at age 5 will differ very strongly from one another not only in mental development but also in physical appearance. Determinism in biology. The interaction of biological objects with one another and with non-living objects is described by biological, physical, and chemical laws. Let us examine determinism using the example of the evolution of Earth's living matter. The evolution of Earth's living matter (phylogenesis). According to axiomatic hypotheses, there exist only two materialist variants of the evolution of living matter from the moment of its appearance on Earth to the death of our galaxy: abiotic — determined by physicochemical interaction (Darwin's theory, synthetic evolution); biotic — genetically determined by biological interaction. At the foundation of abiotic theories lie three axiom-postulates: living matter on Earth arose from non-living matter through spontaneous generation; non-living matter is eternal; living matter is mortal (with the death of the Solar System and the galaxy, all living matter also perishes). At the foundation of biotic theories lie three axiom-postulates: all life from life; non-living matter is eternal; living matter is eternal. (If we accept the axiom: "Non-living matter is eternal," then we must also accept the axiom: "Living matter is eternal." "Life is eternal insofar as the Cosmos is eternal, and has always been transmitted through biogenesis" — wrote V.I. Vernadsky.) According to biotic hypotheses, Earth's living matter is part of the living matter of the Universe. The process of the evolution of living matter on Earth is a particular case of the evolution of living matter in the Universe. Evolution is genetically determined and directed toward reproduction in the Cosmos. Despite the fact that the above-mentioned groups of scientific theories are constructed by the axiomatic method, one of the groups, on the basis of the Law of the Excluded Middle, is true. Which group of scientific theories is true we are not today in a position to determine. Therefore, let us examine determinism not only using the example of Darwin's theory, but also using the example of other materialist theories. In any proof, three components can be identified: thesis, arguments, and demonstration. Biotic variant of evolution. Thesis. The evolution of living matter is determined by biological interaction, i.e., by genes. Argument 1. Earth's living matter consists of unicellular and multicellular organisms. Argument 2. The evolution (development, ontogenesis) of a multicellular organism is determined by biological interaction (genes). This argument, with respect to currently living unicellular and multicellular organisms, is not currently in question. Demonstration. If the evolution of a part of the whole is genetically determined by biological interaction, then the evolution of the whole (Earth's living matter) is also genetically determined by biological interaction. Abiotic variant of evolution. Thesis. The evolution of living matter is determined by physicochemical interaction and can be described by physicochemical laws. (The appearance of the first unicellular organism and the formation of new species are the result of physicochemical interaction between bodies.) Refutation of the thesis. Arguments: 1) the first living organisms appeared on Earth approximately 1.2 billion years after its formation; 2) in the process of evolution, several million bisexual species appeared; 3) bisexual species appeared as a result of: a) a favorable synchronous mutation of an entire set of genes at once, corresponding to various finely tuned organs, systems, and functions; b) favorable mutations of the appropriate profile occurring simultaneously (in space and time) in individuals of both male and female sex (in time — for example, on the same day in mayflies; in space — on a limited area within which the encounter of mutated individuals of male and female sex is possible). Demonstration. H. Kastler, one of the pioneers of applying probability theory to biology, calculated, however approximately, the probability of the emergence of life from non-living matter. He even allows that the "building blocks" — amino acids floating in a dense, warm, slightly saline broth — were already ready, from which life could have arisen. Even assuming that the number of cases leading to the combination of organic molecules into a living structure is overestimated and equals 10^46, the probability of life emerging approaches 10^-255. This would require a time many times exceeding the age of the Earth. Pierre-Paul Grasse. The mathematical probability that random mutations produced what we see around us is infinitesimally small. Mutations are rare; they occur in one out of every ten million doublings of a DNA molecule (1 in 10^7). There is a problem with the veracity of the evolutionary model, because an entire series of related mutations is required. The odds that two mutations will be related to each other are the product of the individual probabilities (10^7 x 10^7, or 10^14). This means one chance in one hundred trillion. And if, say, four related mutations are involved? The odds become one in 10^28! Mathematician Murray Eden, one of the participants in a symposium on the mathematical probability of evolution, wrote: "We are convinced that if 'chance' is given a serious and responsible interpretation from a probabilistic standpoint, then the postulate of chance becomes impossible, and an adequate scientific theory of evolution must await the discovery and establishment of new natural laws." Taking the above into account, from the perspective of probability theory, the probability that the evolution of living matter is determined by physicochemical interaction approaches zero. If, in percentage terms, the probability that evolution is determined by physicochemical interaction approaches zero, then naturally the probability that evolution is determined by biological interaction approaches 100%. But if the probability that phylogenesis is determined by biological interaction approaches 100%, then the probability that Earth's living matter, by this criterion, constitutes an organism also approaches 100%. Having conducted a comparative review of the hypotheses, one can conclude that the most well-founded hypothesis is that of directed panspermia. Francis Crick and Leslie Orgel proposed the hypothesis (thesis) that the seeds of life are transferred from planet to planet by intelligent organisms. In other words — living matter in the Cosmos reproduces. For living matter to reproduce in the Cosmos, at least three conditions must be fulfilled: 1) the seeds of life must survive a lengthy journey; 2) there must be means of delivering the seeds of life to other galaxies; 3) the evolution of living matter must be genetically determined, i.e., if life arises on some planet that is genetically identical to that of Earth, or if it was transferred from Earth (panspermia), then in the process of its evolution, intelligent organisms must appear (not necessarily humans). Thesis 1. On Earth there are microorganisms capable of surviving a lengthy journey and thereby performing the function of seeds of life. Argument. Cano's spores — an insect discovered in 1995 by microbiologist Raul Cano of the University of California in a piece of amber, having become trapped in resin approximately 25 million years ago. Bacterial spores from those distant times were found on the body of the entombed insect. The scientist succeeded in reviving these ancient microorganisms. They began to grow and reproduce. Demonstration. Cano's spores are capable of surviving a lengthy journey and thereby performing the function of seeds of life. Thesis 2. Humanity is capable of creating means of delivering the seeds of life to other galaxies. Argument. Humanity today is already capable of sending seeds of life beyond the Solar System (Voyager 1 launched on September 5, 1977). Demonstration. If humanity, just 20 years after launching the first satellite, is capable of delivering seeds of life beyond the Solar System, then naturally, within a few thousand (millions?) of years, the means of delivering seeds of life to planets within its own galaxy and even beyond its boundaries will not pose a challenge for humanity. Conclusion. From the perspective of probability theory and determinism, evolution is a process or phenomenon with a lifespan of approximately 10 billion years (from the beginning of the appearance of life on Earth to the death of the Solar System). This process, with a probability approaching 100%, is determined by biological interaction (genes). The complete group of events is determined by: the number of bodies participating in the process; the state (physical, chemical, biological) of the bodies participating in the process; biological interaction; physicochemical interaction; time elapsed from the beginning of the process; distance between the bodies. The complete group of events of this process (the evolution of living matter on Earth): Abiotic variant, one event — the death of Earth's living matter. Biotic variant, two events: a) the transfer of living matter (seeds of life) to planets of other galaxies; b) the death of Earth's living matter (cosmic catastrophe, nuclear war, etc.) before its reproduction in the Cosmos. If the evolution of living matter truly proceeds according to the abiotic variant, then the activity of humanity or a post-human civilization is incapable of preventing the complete extinction of Earth's living matter. If, however, evolution proceeds according to the biotic variant, then the final result of the evolution of Earth's living matter is currently undetermined. Whether Earth's living matter succeeds in delivering the seeds of life to planets of other galaxies before the death of the Solar System will be determined not only by the number and quality of physical objects participating in this process, but also by the quality of biological objects — that is, also by humanity. And the quality of humanity is determined by three factors: genes, environment, and upbringing. Therefore, the future of Earth's living matter will be largely determined by the activity of scientists in the fields of genetics and education — and in general by the discovery of biological and physicochemical laws. Conclusions. A hypothesis is proposed according to which Earth's living matter is a unified whole — a distinctive multi-species organism with a lifespan of approximately 10 billion years. In this organism, individual organisms perform the function of cells, and species perform the function of tissues and organs. Reproduction for the multi-species organism means the delivery of seeds of life to other galaxies. The hypothesis belongs to the field of biology and constitutes one variant of panspermia. Criteria of an organism. Two characteristics are attributed as key criteria of an organism: the activity of cells of a multicellular organism and ontogenesis. If Earth's living matter truly constitutes a multi-species organism, then the activity of individuals of Earth's living matter must be analogous to the activity of cells of a multicellular organism, and phylogenesis, like ontogenesis, must be determined by biological interaction, i.e., by genes. The hypothesis is examined from the perspective of activity, need, survival means, part and whole, determinism, and probability theory. From the perspective of activity, it is established that the activity of individuals of Earth's living matter is analogous to the activity of cells of a multicellular organism. If the activity of individuals of Earth's living matter is analogous to the activity of cells of a multicellular organism, and the activity of species is analogous to the activity of tissues and organs of a multicellular organism, then by this criterion, Earth's living matter constitutes a multi-species organism. From the perspective of needs and survival means, it is established that survival means for Earth's living matter in the Cosmos exist in reality. This constitutes evidence that Earth's living matter is capable of reproducing in the Universe. And if Earth's living matter is capable of reproducing in the Cosmos, it can naturally be recognized as an organism. From the perspective of part and whole. If the evolution (ontogenesis) of a part of the whole is determined by biological interaction (genes), then the evolution (phylogenesis) of the whole (Earth's living matter) is also determined by biological interaction. From the perspective of determinism and probability theory. From the perspective of probability theory and determinism, evolution is a process or phenomenon with a lifespan of approximately 10 billion years (from the beginning of the appearance of life on Earth to the death of the Solar System). 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